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Which Of The Following Describes Asexual Reproduction In Animals

Written By Thursday, 28 April 2022 Add Comment Edit

Reproduction without a sexual process

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does non involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise past asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the full set of genes of their single parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can too reproduce asexually.[1] In vertebrates, the most mutual form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited.[2]

While all prokaryotes reproduce without the formation and fusion of gametes, mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation, transformation and transduction tin can be likened to sexual reproduction in the sense of genetic recombination in meiosis.[iii]

Types of asexual reproduction [edit]

Fission [edit]

Prokaryotes (Archaea and Bacteria) reproduce asexually through binary fission, in which the parent organism divides in two to produce ii genetically identical daughter organisms. Eukaryotes (such as protists and unicellular fungi) may reproduce in a functionally similar way by mitosis; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.

Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.thou. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent prison cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.[iv] [5] [six]

In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony appears either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate inside the same jail cell membrane,[7] [8] sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.

Budding [edit]

Some cells divide past budding (for instance baker'southward yeast), resulting in a "mother" and a "girl" prison cell that is initially smaller than the parent. Budding is too known on a multicellular level; an animal case is the hydra,[ix] which reproduces past budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.

Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two (endodyogeny) or more (endopolygeny) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is and so consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.[10]

Also, budding (external or internal) occurs in some worms like Taenia or Echinococcus; these worms produce cysts and so produce (invaginated or evaginated) protoscolex with budding.

Vegetative propagation [edit]

Vegetative propagation is a blazon of asexual reproduction constitute in plants where new individuals are formed without the product of seeds or spores and thus without syngamy or meiosis.[11] Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, for case in kalanchoe (Bryophyllum daigremontianum) and many produce new plants from rhizomes or stolon (for example in strawberry). Other plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and Dahlia tubers). Some plants produce adventitious shoots and may form a clonal colony. In these examples, all the individuals are clones, and the clonal population may encompass a big area.[12]

Spore formation [edit]

Many multicellular organisms form spores during their biological life bicycle in a process chosen sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, which undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals (called gametophytes in the case of plants) without a fertilization effect. These haploid individuals requite rise to gametes through mitosis. Meiosis and gamete germination therefore occur in split up generations or "phases" of the life cycle, referred to as alternation of generations. Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined every bit the fusion of gametes (fertilization), spore formation in found sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction (agamogenesis) despite being the issue of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy. Nevertheless, both events (spore formation and fertilization) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the institute life cycle.

Fungi and some algae can also apply true asexual spore germination, which involves mitosis giving ascent to reproductive cells called mitospores that develop into a new organism afterwards dispersal. This method of reproduction is found for example in conidial fungi and the red algae Polysiphonia, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. However, mitotic sporogenesis is an exception and nearly spores, such every bit those of plants and many algae, are produced by meiosis.[ commendation needed ] [13] [14] [15]

Fragmentation [edit]

Regeneration from an arm

Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms. Animals that reproduce asexually include planarians, many annelid worms including polychaetes[xvi] and some oligochaetes,[17] turbellarians and ocean stars. Many fungi and plants reproduce asexually. Some plants have specialized structures for reproduction via fragmentation, such as gemmae in liverworts. Most lichens, which are a symbiotic union of a fungus and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria, reproduce through fragmentation to ensure that new individuals contain both symbionts. These fragments can take the form of soredia, dust-like particles consisting of fungal hyphen wrapped around photobiont cells.

Clonal Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a grade of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity.[18] Due to many environmental and epigenetic differences, clones originating from the same ancestor might actually be genetically and epigenetically dissimilar.[19]

Agamogenesis [edit]

Agamogenesis is any course of reproduction that does not involve a male person gamete. Examples are parthenogenesis and apomixis.

Parthenogenesis [edit]

Parthenogenesis is a grade of agamogenesis in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. Information technology has been documented in over ii,000 species.[20] Parthenogenesis occurs in the wild in many invertebrates (e.g. h2o fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps) and vertebrates (generally reptiles, amphibians, and fish). Information technology has likewise been documented in domestic birds and in genetically altered lab mice.[21] [22] Plants tin can engage in parthenogenesis as well through a procedure called apomixis. However this process is considered by many to not be an independent reproduction method, but instead a breakdown of the mechanisms behind sexual reproduction.[23] Parthenogenetic organisms tin can be divide into two main categories: facultative and obligate.

Facultative parthenogenesis [edit]

In facultative parthenogenesis, females can reproduce both sexually and asexually.[20] Because of the many advantages of sexual reproduction, nigh facultative parthenotes only reproduce asexually when forced to. This typically occurs in instances when finding a mate becomes difficult. For example, female zebra sharks volition reproduce asexually if they are unable to find a mate in their ocean habitats.[two]

Parthenogenesis was previously believed to rarely occur in vertebrates, and only exist possible in very small animals. Withal, it has been discovered in many more species in contempo years. Today, the largest species that has been documented reproducing parthenogenically is the Komodo dragon at 10 anxiety long and over 300 pounds.[24] [25]

Aphid giving birth to alive young from an unfertilized egg

Heterogony is a form of facultative parthenogenesis where females alternating betwixt sexual and asexual reproduction at regular intervals (see Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction). Aphids are one grouping of organism that engages in this blazon of reproduction. They use asexual reproduction to reproduce quickly and create winged offspring that can colonize new plants and reproduce sexually in the fall to lay eggs for the next flavour.[26] However, some aphid species are obligate parthenotes.[27]

Obligate parthenogenesis [edit]

Desert grassland whiptail lizard

In obligate parthenogenesis, females just reproduce asexually.[20] One example of this is the desert grassland whiptail lizard, a hybrid of two other species. Typically hybrids are infertile but through parthenogenesis this species has been able to develop stable populations.[28]

Gynogenesis is a class of obligate parthenogenesis where a sperm cell is used to initiate reproduction. However, the sperm's genes never get incorporated into the egg cell. The best known case of this is the Amazon Molly. Because they are obligate parthenotes, in that location are no males in their species so they depend on males from a closely related species (the Sailfin Molly) for sperm.[29]

Apomixis and nucellar embryony [edit]

Apomixis in plants is the formation of a new sporophyte without fertilization. It is important in ferns and in flowering plants, but is very rare in other seed plants. In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is now about often used for agamospermy, the formation of seeds without fertilization, but was once used to include vegetative reproduction. An example of an apomictic establish would be the triploid European dandelion. Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg inside a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as the Saharan Cypress Cupressus dupreziana, where the genetic textile of the embryo are derived entirely from pollen.

Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction [edit]

Aphid populations are often entirely female during the summertime, with sexual reproduction just to produce eggs for overwintering.

Some species tin can alternating between sexual and asexual strategies, an ability known as heterogamy, depending on many weather condition. Alternation is observed in several rotifer species (cyclical parthenogenesis east.thou. in Brachionus species) and a few types of insects.

1 example of this is aphids which can engage in heterogony. In this system, females are born pregnant and produce but female offspring. This cycle allows them to reproduce very quickly. Even so, most species reproduce sexually once a year. This switch is triggered by ecology changes in the autumn and causes females to develop eggs instead of embryos. This dynamic reproductive cycle allows them to produce specialized offspring with polyphenism, a type of polymorphism where different phenotypes take evolved to carry out specific tasks.[26]

The greatcoat bee Apis mellifera subsp. capensis can reproduce asexually through a process called thelytoky. The freshwater crustacean Daphnia reproduces past parthenogenesis in the spring to speedily populate ponds, then switches to sexual reproduction as the intensity of competition and predation increases. Monogonont rotifers of the genus Brachionus reproduce via cyclical parthenogenesis: at low population densities females produce asexually and at higher densities a chemical cue accumulates and induces the transition to sexual reproduction. Many protists and fungi alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction. A few species of amphibians, reptiles, and birds have a similar ability.[ which? ] [ which? ]

The slime mold Dictyostelium undergoes binary fission (mitosis) as single-celled amoebae under favorable weather. However, when conditions turn unfavorable, the cells aggregate and follow ane of two unlike developmental pathways, depending on atmospheric condition. In the social pathway, they class a multi-cellular slug which then forms a fruiting trunk with asexually generated spores. In the sexual pathway, two cells fuse to form a giant prison cell that develops into a large cyst. When this macrocyst germinates, it releases hundreds of amoebic cells that are the product of meiotic recombination betwixt the original two cells.[30]

The hyphae of the common mold (Rhizopus) are capable of producing both mitotic as well equally meiotic spores. Many algae similarly switch between sexual and asexual reproduction.[31] A number of plants use both sexual and asexual means to produce new plants, some species alter their principal modes of reproduction from sexual to asexual under varying environmental weather.[32]

Inheritance in asexual species [edit]

In the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus asexual reproduction (obligate parthenogenesis) can be inherited past a recessive allele, which leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.[33] [34]
Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has besides been establish in the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus fabarum.[35]

Examples in animals [edit]

Asexual reproduction is found in nigh half of the creature phyla.[36] Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark[37] and the blacktip shark.[38] In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to exist genetically identical to the mothers. The New United mexican states whiptail is some other example.

Some reptiles use the ZW sex-determination system, which produces either males (with ZZ sex activity chromosomes) or females (with ZW or WW sexual activity chromosomes). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used past reptiles was incapable of producing feasible WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female person offspring with WW chromosomes.[39] The female person boa could have chosen whatever number of male partners (and had successfully in the past) merely on this occasion she reproduced asexually, creating 22 female babies with WW sexual activity-chromosomes.

Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later on stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the nine-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic ground, though its occurrence is common. At that place are at least x million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.

Bdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have immune them to survive meliorate in periods of dehydration.[40] Bdelloid rotifers are extraordinarily resistant to impairment from ionizing radiation due to the aforementioned Deoxyribonucleic acid-preserving adaptations used to survive dormancy.[41] These adaptations include an extremely efficient mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks.[42] This repair mechanism was studied in ii Bdelloidea species, Adineta vaga,[42] and Philodina roseola.[43] and appears to involve mitotic recombination between homologous DNA regions within each species.

Molecular evidence strongly suggests that several species of the stick insect genus Timema take used only asexual (parthenogenetic) reproduction for millions of years, the longest period known for whatever insect.[44]

In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been several transitions to asexuality, likely due to different causes.[45]

Adaptive significance of asexual reproduction [edit]

A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, peculiarly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is then common amidst them. Electric current hypotheses[46] suggest that asexual reproduction may accept short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by assuasive more rapid generation of genetic variety, allowing accommodation to changing environments. Developmental constraints[47] may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life-cycles. Well-nigh all asexual modes of reproduction maintain meiosis either in a modified form or every bit an alternative pathway.[48] Facultatively apomictic plants increase frequencies of sexuality relative to apomixis afterwards abiotic stress.[48] Another constraint on switching from sexual to asexual reproduction would be the concomitant loss of meiosis and the protective recombinational repair of DNA damage afforded as ane function of meiosis.[49] [50]

Run across also [edit]

  • Alternation of generations
  • Self-fertilization
  • Bacterial conjugation
  • Biological life cycle
  • Biological reproduction, also simply reproduction
  • Cloning
  • Hermaphrodite
  • Found reproduction
  • Sex activity

References [edit]

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  50. ^ Avise, J. (2008) Clonality: The Genetics, Environmental and Evolution of Sexual Abstinence in Vertebrate Animals. See pp. 22-25. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019536967X ISBN 978-0195369670

Further reading [edit]

  • Avise, J. (2008). Clonality: The Genetics, Ecology, and Development of Sexual Forbearance in Vertebrate Animals. Oxford University Printing. ISBN978-0-nineteen-536967-0.
  • Graham, L.; Graham, J.; Wilcox, 50. (2003). Plant Biology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Teaching. pp. 258–259. ISBN978-0-xiii-030371-4.
  • Raven, P. H.; Evert, R. F.; Eichhorn, S. E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). NY: W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN978-0-7167-6284-3.

External links [edit]

  • Asexual reproduction
  • Abdominal Protozoa

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction

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